What Books and Burials Tell Us - Long Answer Questions
The Vedas are the oldest religious texts. There are 4: Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda, Atharvaveda.
The oldest Veda, composed about 3500 years ago. It includes over a thousand hymns, called 'sukta' or 'well-said'. These hymns are in praise of various gods and goddesses.
Agni (God of fire), Indra (A warrior god), and Soma (A plant from which a special drink is prepared).
The language of the Vedas. It is different from the Sanskrit learnt in schools today. It is an Indo-European language.
They were recited and heard (Shruti), not read. Priests taught students to memorize them syllable by syllable. They were written down much later.
Cattle, children (especially sons), and horses (for battles).
Based on work: 1. Brahmins (Priests, performed rituals), 2. Rajas (Rulers, but no capitals/armies/taxes), 3. Vish/Jana (The people), 4. Dasas/Dasyus (Slaves, captured in war, no sacrifices, different language).
Megaliths are 'stone boulders'. These were carefully arranged by people to mark burial sites. The practice started 3000 years ago.
Deccan, South India, North-East, and Kashmir.
Some megaliths are on the surface, some underground. A 'Cist' is a box-like structure made of stone slabs, often with a porthole (hole) for entry.
The dead were buried with distinctive pots (Black and Red Ware). Tools and weapons of iron were also found, along with skeletons of horses, horse equipment, and ornaments of stone and gold.
A skeleton buried with 33 gold beads, 2 stone beads, 4 copper bangles, and one conch shell. Other skeletons had only a few pots, showing social difference.
Yes, megaliths sometimes contain more than one skeleton. Stone circles or boulders on top served as signposts to find the spot again.
Inamgaon (Maharashtra) on river Ghod. Adults were buried in the ground, head towards north. Sometimes in houses. One man was found in a clay jar in a courtyard of a 5-roomed house, cross-legged.
Written by Charaka (physician) 2000 years ago. He stated the human body has 360 bones (counting teeth, joints, cartilage).
Seeds of wheat, barley, rice, pulses, millets, peas, sesame. Bones of cattle, buffalo, goat, sheep, dog, horse, ass, pig, sambhar, deer, etc. with cut marks (food). Fruits like ber, amla, jamun, dates.
Found in China (3500 years ago). Kings wrote questions on bones (will I win war?), put them in fire, cracks appeared, fortunetellers read cracks to predict future.
The Rigveda mentions 'Ayas' (metal), likely Copper/Bronze. Iron usage is more prominent in later Vedic texts and Megalithic burials.
Both mean people or community. 'Jana' is still used in Hindi. 'Vish' comes from Vaishya.
Sages who composed the Vedic hymns. Some hymns were composed by women.
What Books and Burials Tell Us - Important Facts
Rigveda is the oldest Veda (3500 years ago).
It contains 1028 hymns (Suktas).
Agni is the God of Fire.
Indra is the Warrior God.
Soma is a special plant/drink.
Sanskrit belongs to the Indo-European family.
Dravidian family: Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, Malayalam.
Austro-Asiatic family: Languages in Jharkhand/Central India.
Tibeto-Burman family: North-East India.
Rigveda was printed less than 200 years ago.
Battles were fought for Cattle, Land, and Water.
Wealth was distributed: Leader > Priest > People.
Yajnas (sacrifices) were performed by Brahmins.
Ghee, grain, and animals were offered to fire.
There were no regular armies.
Assemblies were held to discuss war and peace.
Rajas were chosen for bravery.
Aryas: People who composed hymns.
Dasas/Dasyus: Opponents of Aryas.
Dasas were later treated as slaves.
Megaliths mark burial sites.
Practice of erecting Megaliths started 3000 years ago.
Black and Red Ware pots are distinct to Megaliths.
Iron tools appear in Megalithic burials.
There is evidence of horse riding in Megalithic culture.
Portholes were used as entrances in Cists.
Brahmagiri site shows wealth disparity.
Family burials used the same site over time.
Inamgaon is on the river Ghod.
Inamgaon was occupied between 3600 and 2700 years ago.
Burials at Inamgaon: Head towards North.
Charaka was a famous physician.
Charaka Samhita is a book on medicine.
Skeletal studies help identify gender (Pelvic bone).
Writing existed in China 3500 years ago.
Chinese kings did not live in palaces or know iron.
Vedas were preserved by oral tradition.
Birch bark manuscripts of Rigveda found in Kashmir.
Manuscript is preserved in Pune, Maharashtra.
Rivers Beas and Sutlej are mentioned in hymns.
Network of rivers is compared to horses and cows.
Ganga and Yamuna are named only once in Rigveda.
Saraswati river is praised.
'Vishvamitra and the Rivers' is a famous dialogue hymn.
Chariots were drawn by horses.
Slaves served their masters.
Megalith types: Stone circle, Cairn, Menhir.
Tools found: Daggers, Axes, Hoes.
Inamgaon people ate a variety of meat and grains.
Ber, Amla, Jamun, Dates were gathered.
What Books and Burials Tell Us - Important Dates
Composition of Rigveda
Beginning of Megalithic culture
Settlement at Inamgaon
Charaka (Physician)