In the Earliest Cities - Long Answer Questions
About 150 years ago, railway engineers in Punjab found mounds of high-quality baked bricks and used them for railway lines, unknowingly destroying a part of the city. Later, archaeologists realized it was one of the oldest cities in the subcontinent.
They were divided into two parts: the Citadel (smaller but higher) to the west, and the Lower Town (larger but lower) to the east.
A special tank in the citadel of Mohenjodaro. It was lined with bricks, coated with plaster, and made water-tight with a layer of natural tar. It had steps leading down to it from two sides.
Structures found in Kalibangan and Lothal, likely used for performing sacrifices.
Houses were either one or two storeys high, with rooms built around a courtyard. Most had a separate bathing area, and some had wells for water.
Drains were covered and laid in straight lines. Each drain had a gentle slope. Inspection holes were provided at intervals for cleaning. House drains were connected to street drains.
People who knew how to write. They helped prepare the seals and perhaps wrote on other materials that have not survived.
Stone, shell, metal (copper, bronze, gold, silver). Copper/Bronze for tools, weapons, ornaments, vessels. Gold/Silver for ornaments and vessels.
Rectangular stones usually made of steatite, having an animal carved on them and signs from a script that remains undeciphered.
They were made of a stone called chert. They were cubical in shape and used to weigh precious stones or metals.
A material that was artificially produced. A gum was used to shape sand or powdered quartz into an object. It was then glazed, giving it a shiny, glassy surface (often blue or sea-green).
Copper from Rajasthan/Oman. Tin from Afghanistan/Iran. Gold from Karnataka. Precious stones from Gujarat/Iran/Afghanistan.
Wheat, barley, pulses, peas, rice, sesame, linseed, and mustard. They also ate fish and meat.
It was a new tool used to dig the earth for turning the soil and planting seeds. Toy models have been found.
Located on Khadir Beyt in the Rann of Kutch. It had fresh water and fertile soil. unlike other cities (2 parts), Dholavira was divided into three parts, each surrounded by massive stone walls.
A large open area for public ceremonies, and large letters of the Harappan script carved out of white stone and inlaid in wood (a unique find as usually writing is on small seals).
Stood beside a tributary of the Sabarmati in Gujarat, close to the Gulf of Khambat. It was a centre for making objects from stone, shell, and metal.
A huge tank where ships and boats came in from the sea and through the river channel. Goods were loaded and unloaded here.
Around 3900 years ago, secrets: rivers dried up, deforestation, grazing destroyed green cover, or floods. Or the rulers lost control. People moved to newer settlements.
It is pictographic. It has not yet been deciphered (we don't know what it says). It is usually written from right to left.
In the Earliest Cities - Important Facts
Harappan cities developed about 4700 years ago.
Harappa was the first city to be discovered.
Mohenjodaro is known as the 'Mound of the Dead'.
The Great Bath is in Mohenjodaro.
Kalibangan is in Rajasthan.
Lothal is in Gujarat.
Dholavira is in Gujarat.
Rakhigarhi is in Haryana.
Walls were made of baked bricks derived from the 'interlocking' pattern.
Streets cut each other at right angles.
The drainage system shows high civic sense.
No iron tools were found in Harappan cities.
Spindle whorls of terracotta and faience were used to spin thread.
Cotton was grown at Mehrgarh 7000 years ago.
Actual pieces of cloth were attached to the lid of a silver vase at Mohenjodaro.
Specialists were trained to do specific work (cutting stone, polishing beads).
The statue of the 'Embroidered Man' (Priest King) shows detailed clothing.
Copper was mixed with Tin to produce Bronze.
This is why it is called the Bronze Age Civilization.
Imports: Copper (Rajasthan, Oman).
Imports: Tin (Afghanistan, Iran).
Imports: Gold (Karnataka).
Imports: Precious stones (Gujarat, Iran, Afghanistan).
The plough was used for farming.
Water storage was likely used for irrigation.
Harappans reared cattle, sheep, goat, and buffalo.
Ber was a fruit they collected.
They hunted wild animals like the antelope.
Dholavira had a large open stadium.
Lothal had a bead-making factory.
Storehouses were found in Mohenjodaro, Harappa, and Lothal.
Seals were used to stamp bags of goods (sealing).
If the sealing was intact, the goods were safe.
The civilization declined around 3900 years ago.
Garbage piled up on streets in the later phase.
Drainage systems broke down in the later phase.
New houses were built over drains.
Some scholars suggest the Aryans arrived after.
Harappan pottery consists of Red ware with Black designs.
Standardized weights were found.
Toys include terracotta carts and ploughs.
A piece of woven cotton was found.
Faience beads, bangles, earrings were made.
The script is found on seals, copper tools, rims of jars.
Most inscriptions are short.
The longest inscription has about 26 signs.
Harappan cities had a grid system.
Citadel housed the ruling class.
Lower town housed the common people.
The Great Bath had rooms on all sides.
In the Earliest Cities - Important Dates
Cotton cultivation at Mehrgarh
Beginning of Harappan Cities
Beginning of the end of these cities
Emergence of other cities