Vital Villages, Thriving Towns

Around 3000 years ago. Large collections of iron tools were found in megalithic burials. Around 2500 years ago, there is evidence of growing use (axes, ploughshares).

The village headman in the northern part of the subcontinent. The post was hereditary. He was the largest landowner, had slaves, and was powerful (collected taxes, functioned as judge/police).

Independent farmers, mostly smaller landowners.

Men and women who did not own land and had to earn a living working on the fields owned by others.

Large landowners (Vellalar), Ordinary ploughmen (Uzhavar), Landless labourers/slaves (Kadaisiyar/Adimai).

The earliest works in Tamil, composed around 2300 years ago. They were compiled in assemblies (Sangams) of poets held in Madurai.

Because they were composed and compiled in assemblies known as Sangams.

Punch-marked coins were in use for about 500 years. They were made of silver or copper, with designs punched on to them.

It has been an important settlement for 2500 years. It was a crossroad of travel/trade (North-West to East, North to South). It was a religious centre (Buddhist, Jain, Krishna worship).

Northern Black Polished Ware. It is a hard, wheel-made, metallic looking ware with a shiny black surface. The potter used high temperature to make it black.

Associations of crafts persons and merchants. Crafts shrenis provided training, raw material, and distribution. Merchant shrenis organized trade.

Rich people deposited money. This was invested, and interest was returned or used for religious institutions (monasteries).

A coastal settlement in Pondicherry (2200-1900 years ago). Ships unloaded goods here. A massive brick structure (warehouse) was found.

Pottery from the Mediterranean (Amphorae - tall double handled jars for wine/oil), and Arretine Ware (stamped red glazed pottery named after a city in Italy).

Roman lamps, glassware, and gems constitute Roman finds at Arikamedu.

A dynasty that became powerful in western India 2100 years ago. Gautamiputra Shri Satakarni was the most important ruler.

Route leading to the south. Also used as a name for the entire southern region.

A Jataka story. A man sold a dead rat, bought water for grass cutters, befriended a trader, and eventually became rich.

Major crafts. Rules for spinning and weaving were mentioned in the Arthashastra to ensure payment and work quality.

Rows of pots/rings arranged one on top of other. Found in individual houses, used as toilets, drains, or garbage dumps.

Iron use increased 2500 years ago.

Iron axes cleared forests.

Iron ploughshares increased production.

Irrigation works: Canals, wells, tanks, artificial lakes.

Grama Bhojaka was often the largest landowner.

King used Grama Bhojaka to collect taxes.

Uzhava means Ploughman in Tamil.

Vellalar means Landowner.

Adimai means Slave.

Sangam texts illuminate village life.

Jatakas were stories preserved by Buddhist monks.

Ring wells were used for drainage.

Mathura became the second capital of Kushanas.

Mathura produced fine sculpture.

NBPW is found mostly in North India.

Cloth manufacturing centres: Varanasi (North), Madurai (South).

Shrenis are Guilds.

Shrenis functioned as Banks.

Arikamedu is Puducherry.

Amphorae contained wine or oil.

Arretine ware is Roman pottery.

Small tanks at Arikamedu were dyeing vats.

Brahmi script was used for Tamil then.

Satavahanas are Lords of the Dakshinapatha.

Silk Route was a famous trade route.

Chinese rulers sent silk to Iran/West Asia.

Kushanas controlled the Silk Route.

Kushanas ruled from Peshawar and Mathura.

Taxila was part of Kushana kingdom.

Kushanas issued gold coins.

Buddhism split into Mahayana and Theravada.

Mahayana: Statues of Buddha were made.

Bodhisattvas: Persons who attained enlightenment.

Bodhisattva worship became popular.

Pilgrims: Fa Xian (1600 yrs ago), Xuan Zang (1400 yrs ago), I-Qing.

Bhakti movement: Shiva, Vishnu, Durga worship.

Bhagavad Gita is part of Mahabharata.

Bhakti emphasizes devotion over sacrifice.

South Indian lords: Muvendar (Chola, Chera, Pandya).

Puhar (Kaveripattinam) was Chola port.

Madurai was Pandya capital.

Christianity emerged in West Asia 2000 years ago.

St. Thomas is believed to have come to Kerala.

Syrian Christians of Kerala are among the oldest Christian communities.

Paper was invented in China by Cai Lun (1900 years ago).

Silk making was a secret in China for thousands of years.

Pilgrims carried books and statues back.

Xuan Zang took the land route back to China.

Nalanda was a unique centre of Buddhist learning.

Beginning of Iron use

Sangam Literature

Arikamedu settlement / Silk Route height