Forest Society and Colonialism

To supply timber for the Royal Navy (ships), to build railway sleepers (expansion of tracks), and to clear land for plantations (tea/coffee) and agriculture (seen as productive).

A German expert, the first Inspector General of Forests in India. He set up the Indian Forest Service (1864) and helping formulate the Indian Forest Act (1865).

A system where natural forests with diverse trees are cut down and replaced by one type of tree planted in straight rows (Plantation/Monoculture).

Laws (1865, 1878, 1927) that classified forests into Reserved (best, no access), Protected, and Village forests. Villagers lost rights to collect wood/graze.

Their daily practices (cutting wood, grazing, collecting fruits/roots, hunting) became illegal. They were forced to steal and bribe guards.

Parts of forest are cut and burnt in rotation. Seeds sown in ashes. Used for a few years then left fallow. British banned it as 'wasteful' and dangerous (fire risk).

Leader of the Ulgulan in Chotanagpur against the British forest policies.

A rebellion in 1910 against the reservation of two-thirds of the forest. Led by Gunda Dhur. Villagers looted bazaars and houses of officials.

The Dutch colonized Java (Indonesia). They imposed forest laws similar to the British to control teak forests for ships.

Skilled forest cutters and shifting cultivators in Java. They rebelled against the Dutch in 1770.

The Dutch forced villages to provide free labour and buffaloes for cutting/transporting timber in Java.

A villager in Java who questioned state ownership of the forest. He started a movement (Saminism) of passive resistance (lying down on land).

In WWII, the Dutch destroyed sawmills and teak logs in Java so they wouldn't fall into Japanese hands.

Jhum (India), Lading (SE Asia), Milpa (Central America), Tavy (Africa), Chena (Sri Lanka).

For colonial trade and movement of troops. Required huge amounts of wood for sleepers and fuel.

Wooden plank laid across railway tracks.

Set up in Dehradun in 1906 to teach scientific forestry.

Communities were forcibly displaced. Some had to change occupations. Some rebelled.

Tribes who specialized in collecting forest produce. They were restricted by new laws.

Forest departments now realize that involving local communities is essential for conservation (e.g., Mizoram sacrad groves).

Deforestation is disappearance of forests.

1/6th of India's land was cultivated in 1600.

Now 1/2 is cultivated.

British considered forests 'wilderness'.

Oak forests in England disappeared.

Royal Navy needed timber.

Railways spread from 1850s.

Each mile of track needed 2000 sleepers.

Contractors cut trees indiscriminately.

Plantations grew Tea, Coffee, Rubber.

Brandis introduced Scientific Forestry.

Indian Forest Act passed in 1865.

Act amended in 1878 and 1927.

Reserved Forests were the best.

Villagers could use Village Forests.

Mahua flowers used for alcohol.

Tendu leaves used for bidis.

Hunting was banned for people.

Hunting became a sport for British.

British killed 80,000 tigers.

George Yule killed 400 tigers.

Swidden agriculture is shifting cultivation.

Only timber trees were planted.

Forest guards managed the forests.

Bastar is in Chhattisgarh.

River Indravati flows through Bastar.

Maria and Muria Gonds live there.

Mango boughs were passed as message.

Rebellion in 1910 suppressed by troops.

Reservation was suspended for a while.

Java is famous for rice now.

Java was Dutch colony.

Kalangs were valuable.

Mataram kingdom split strained Kalangs.

Dutch Fort was attacked.

Samin's challenge began in 1890.

Japanese exploited Java's forests in WWII.

Forest management is changing.

Sacred groves (Sarnas, Devarakudu) protected by people.

Dense forests survive in villages.

Conservation entails working with people.

Environmentalism is a new force.

Colonialism triggered ecological change.

Industrialization drives resource hunger.

Wood was the primary fuel.

Indian Forest Service set up

Indian Forest Act

Bastar Rebellion

Forest Research Institute