Working of Institutions

A communication issued by an appropriate authority aimed at executing a policy decision (e.g., the Mandal Commission 27% reservation order).

A Second Backward Classes Commission appointed in 1979 under B.P. Mandal. It recommended 27% reservation for SEBC (Socially and Educationally Backward Classes).

Legislature (Makes laws), Executive (Implements laws), Judiciary (Settles disputes).

The national assembly of elected representatives. Supreme law-making authority.

Political: Elected by people for specific period (Ministers). They decide policy. Permanent: Civil servants (IAS/IPS). They remain in office and assist ministers.

He is the head of government. He chairs cabinet meetings, coordinates departments, and his resignation brings down the ministry. 'First among equals'.

Head of State. Nominal executive. Supervises overall functioning. Appoints PM and key officials. Supreme Commander of Defence Forces.

Power of SC/HC to determine the constitutional validity of any law or action of the executive.

Government formed by an alliance of two or more parties when no single party gets a majority.

The inner ring of the Council of Ministers (top 20 ministers). They take major decisions.

The official name for the body that includes all the Ministers (60-80). Includes Cabinet, Ministers of State.

The Council of Ministers is collectively responsible to the Lok Sabha. If a No-Confidence Motion is passed, all resign.

Council of States. Upper House. Represents states. Can delay bills but not stop money bills.

House of the People. Lower House. Directly elected. More powerful in money matters and forming govt.

A Joint Session. (Lok Sabha view usually prevails due to numbers).

The President (usually the senior-most judge of SC).

Any citizen can approach court if public interest is hurt.

Courts are not under legislature or executive.

Process to remove President or Judges (rare and difficult).

SC upheld the Mandal Commission 27% reservation but asked to exclude the 'Creamy Layer'.

Government Order (OM) regarding Mandal was signed by a Joint Secretary.

VP Singh implemented Mandal report in 1990.

Anti-Mandal protests were violent.

Parliament controls the purse (money).

Lok Sabha term: 5 years.

Rajya Sabha term: Permanent (members 6 years).

Money Bill only in Lok Sabha.

14 days time for Rajya Sabha to pass Money Bill.

PM is appointed by President.

President is elected by MPs and MLAs.

Presidential system exists in USA.

Parliamentary system exists in India/UK.

Civil Servants are experts/administrators.

Minister is answerable to people.

Supreme Court is guardian of Constitution.

Integrated Judiciary: SC -> HC -> District Court.

SC is highest court of appeal.

President can declare Emergency.

Pocket Veto: President keeps bill pending.

Mandal Commission appointed

Mandal Report implemented

Indira Sawhney Judgment